Armed officers stood guard throughout, as a crowd gathered to watch the gruesome spectacle. Other images showed two men grimacing in pain as they were flogged for their own crimes.

Aceh was granted special autonomy following a peace deal in 2005 after decades of conflict, allowing it to set its own domestic agendas. The province adopted the Islamic Criminal Code Bylaw in 2014 and began to fully enforce it the following year.

Under its penal codes, acts such as adultery, premarital sex, same-sex relations, gambling and drinking alcohol are criminalised and can result in public caning.

Canings are often staged outside mosques or in community squares, and are open to the public. Human rights groups argues the public humiliation adds to the cruelty and causes lasting psychological damage.

The practice has been repeatedly condemned by Amnesty International, who say to contravenes Indonesia’s constitution and violates the country’s obligations under international law.

The organisation said in a statement: “Caning contravenes Indonesia’s Constitution and is in clear violation of international human rights law and standards.

“It constitutes a cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment and can amount to torture in violation of the UN Convention against Torture and other international covenants, to which Indonesia is a State Party.”

Local officials have robustly defended the practice, arguing it is a deterrent and an integral part of the province’s identity.